Therapy101 / People
People in psychotherapy
Psychotherapy and counselling developed through dialogue, disagreement, clinical experiment and institutional reform. This directory holds 90 profiles of practitioners, theorists, couple and family pioneers and researchers.
Each profile separates historical context, contributions, work in the consulting room, common misreadings and critiques. Search by name, modality or book, filter by lineage or first letter. The profiles are drafts: dates, sources and clinical statements still need independent and specialist review, and each page shows its source status.
Six clinical eras and seven therapeutic lineages
Profiles are organised chronologically across six clinical eras (from late nineteenth-century depth foundations to contemporary pluralistic and somatic work) and grouped by seven primary therapeutic lineages.
1885 to 1918Depth Foundations10 profiles1919 to 1945Ego, Object & Interpersonal14 profiles1946 to 1969Humanistic, Behavioural & Systems20 profiles1970 to 1989Cognitive, Systemic & Alliance20 profiles1990 to 2009Contextual, Attachment & Trauma16 profiles2010 to presentPluralistic, Somatic & Cultural10 profiles
Directory
Sorted by surname. The category filter uses each person’s primary lineage.
90 people
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticAbraham, Karl (1877–1925)Developed a psychoanalytic account of melancholia and contributed to the development of psychoanalytic training in Berlin.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticAdler, Alfred (1870–1937)Developed individual psychology, wrote about social interest and contributed to child-guidance work in Vienna.
- Trauma, attachment and body-orientedAinsworth, Mary Dinsmore Salter (1913–1999)Studied infant-caregiver relationships in Uganda and Baltimore and developed the Strange Situation with colleagues.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticAndreas-Salomé, Lou (1861–1937)Formulated dual-directional narcissism as creative restoration, wrote pioneering essays on female subjectivity and erotic life, and maintained a twenty-five-year clinical practice in Göttingen alongside close collaboration with Sigmund and Anna Freud.
- Humanistic, person-centred and existentialAxline, Virginia Mae (1911–1988)Translated Carl Rogers's non-directive philosophy into Child-Centred Play Therapy, codified the Eight Basic Principles in Play Therapy (1947), and authored the classic clinical case narrative Dibs in Search of Self (1964).
- Systemic, couple and familyBateson, Gregory (1904–1980)Directed research on communication in Palo Alto and co-authored the 1956 paper proposing a double-bind theory of schizophrenia. His ideas influenced systemic approaches to relationships.
- Cognitive, behavioural and contextualBeck, Aaron Temkin (1921–2021)Developed cognitive therapy, studied negative thinking in depression and helped develop widely used self-report measures.
- Cognitive, behavioural and contextualBeck, Judith S. (born 1954)Teaches cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT), including individual case conceptualisation and collaborative session structure.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticBenjamin, Jessica (born 1946)Examines recognition, domination and participation in relationships through feminist and psychoanalytic theory.
- Systemic, couple and familyBerg, Insoo Kim (1934–2007)Co-established the Brief Family Therapy Center in Milwaukee and helped develop questions about exceptions, preferred futures and change.
- Humanistic, person-centred and existentialBerne, Eric Lennard (1910–1970)Created Transactional Analysis (TA), mapped Parent, Adult, and Child (P-A-C) ego states, analysed interpersonal games in Games People Play (1964), formulated unconscious life scripts, and championed contractual psychotherapy.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticBion, Wilfred Ruprecht (1897–1979)Pioneered group dynamics at Northfield and the Tavistock Clinic (Experiences in Groups, 1961) and transformed psychoanalysis through his theory of thinking, container-contained, alpha function, and clinical receptivity.
- Integrative, common factors and outcome researchBordin, Edward S. (1913–1992)Proposed a working alliance model that could be considered across different forms of psychotherapy.
- Systemic, couple and familyBowen, Murray (1913–1990)Formulated the eight interlocking concepts of Bowen family systems theory - including differentiation of self, emotional triangles, and emotional cutoff - and pioneered the clinical genogram and family-of-origin coaching.
- Trauma, attachment and body-orientedBowlby, Edward John Mostyn (1907–1990)Developed an account of attachment, separation and loss, including the ideas of a secure base and internal working models.
- Integrative, common factors and outcome researchCooper, Mick (born 1967)With John McLeod, established the pluralistic framework grounded in the principle that different clients need different things at different times, discovered through explicit meta-therapeutic dialogue about Goals, Tasks, and Methods.
- Systemic, couple and familyde Shazer, Steve (1940–2005)Worked with Insoo Kim Berg and the Milwaukee team to develop a brief, collaborative approach focused on clients’ goals and resources.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticDeutsch, Helene (1884–1982)Helped establish psychoanalytic training in Vienna and wrote about personality, grief and women’s lives.
- Cognitive, behavioural and contextualEllis, Albert (1913–2007)Developed Rational Therapy in the 1950s, later called Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT), and wrote about beliefs, emotions and self-acceptance.
- Systemic, couple and familyEpston, David (born 1944)Partnered with Michael White to establish Narrative Therapy, turning clinical documentation from pathologising case files into liberating letters, certificates, and collective 'insider knowledge' archives.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticFairbairn, W. R. D. (1889–1964)Developed a psychoanalytic account of object relations, divided aspects of the self and the moral defence.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticFerenczi, Sándor (1873–1933)Wrote about clinical tact, the therapeutic relationship and the possible effects of childhood abuse and adult denial.
- Cognitive, behavioural and contextualFoa, Edna B. (1937–2026)Founded the Center for the Treatment and Study of Anxiety and, with Michael Kozak, proposed emotional processing theory as an account of exposure therapy.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticFonagy, Peter (born 1952)Co-developed mentalisation-based treatment and studied reflective functioning, attachment and epistemic trust.
- Integrative, common factors and outcome researchFrank, Jerome David (1909–2005)Authored Persuasion and Healing and proposed an account of demoralisation and common features of healing.
- Humanistic, person-centred and existentialFrankl, Viktor Emil (1905–1997)Developed logotherapy and existential analysis, wrote about meaning and suffering, and described techniques including paradoxical intention and dereflection.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticFreud, Anna (1895–1982)Codified the ego's defence mechanisms, founded the Hampstead War Nurseries and Hampstead Child-Therapy Clinic, and introduced developmental lines for assessing normality and pathology in childhood.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticFreud, Sigmund (1856–1939)Created the foundational architecture of psychoanalysis, introducing unconscious conflict, dream interpretation, free association, resistance, and the working-through of transference in the consulting room.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticFromm-Reichmann, Frieda (1889–1957)Practised intensive interpersonal psychotherapy at Chestnut Lodge and wrote Principles of Intensive Psychotherapy (1950).
- Humanistic, person-centred and existentialFromm, Erich (1900–1980)Developed humanistic psychoanalysis, formulated the mechanisms of escape from freedom (authoritarianism, destructiveness, automaton conformity), distinguished productive from marketing character orientations, and co-founded the William Alanson White and Mexican Psychoanalytic Institutes.
- Humanistic, person-centred and existentialGendlin, Eugene Tovio (1926–2017)Developed focusing and contributed to psychotherapy process research on how clients attend to experience during sessions.
- Cognitive, behavioural and contextualGilbert, Paul (born 1951)Created the Three-Circle Affect Regulation Model (Threat, Drive, Soothing) and Compassionate Mind Training for clients who understand cognitive restructuring intellectually yet still feel emotionally attacked inside.
- Humanistic, person-centred and existentialGreenberg, Leslie S. (born 1945)Co-developed Emotionally Focused Couple Therapy with Sue Johnson and Process-Experiential / Emotion-Focused Therapy with Laura Rice and Robert Elliott, establishing differential emotional assessment and marker-guided chair work.
- Systemic, couple and familyHaley, Jay Douglas (1923–2007)Core member of the Bateson Project and MRI, founding editor of Family Process, chief interpreter of Milton Erickson's directive hypnotherapy, and co-founder of Strategic Family Therapy with Cloé Madanes.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticHartmann, Heinz (1894–1970)Developed influential ideas in psychoanalytic ego psychology, including the conflict-free sphere and adaptation, in a 1939 paper.
- Cognitive, behavioural and contextualHayes, Steven C. (born 1948)Helped develop an approach that describes psychological flexibility through six interconnected processes.
- Contextual, feminist and multiculturalHelms, Janet E. (born 1948)Developed racial identity models and proposed a framework for considering racial identity in counselling relationships and supervision.
- Trauma, attachment and body-orientedHerman, Judith Lewis (born 1942)Connected the study of interpersonal and political violence and described safety, remembrance and mourning, and reconnection as phases of recovery.
- Integrative, common factors and outcome researchHill, Clara E. (born 1948)Integrated client-centred exploration, psychodynamic insight, and cognitive-behavioural action into the benchmark training curriculum for counselling psychology while pioneering empirical research on dreams, silence, crying, and meaning in life.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticHorney, Karen (1885–1952)Critiqued aspects of Freud’s account of women and described basic anxiety, interpersonal strategies and the idealised self.
- Trauma, attachment and body-orientedJanet, Pierre (1859–1947)Wrote about dissociation, subconscious fixed ideas and psychological treatment; later clinicians drew on his work in phase-oriented approaches.
- Systemic, couple and familyJohnson, Sue (1947–2024)With colleagues, developed an attachment-informed approach to couple therapy and later wrote about individual and family formats.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticJung, Carl Gustav (1875–1961)Developed analytical psychology, studied word associations and emotionally charged complexes, and formulated ideas about archetypes and the collective unconscious.
- Systemic, couple and familyKaplan, Helen Singer (1929–1995)Established the Human Sexuality Program at Cornell and wrote about sexual desire, behavioural exercises and psychotherapy.
- Cognitive, behavioural and contextualKelly, George Alexander (1905–1967)Formulated Personal Construct Psychology (1955) and constructive alternativism, proposed the 'person-as-scientist' metaphor, created the Repertory Grid, and invented Fixed-Role Therapy.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticKernberg, Otto F. (born 1928)Developed a structural model of personality organisation and helped develop transference-focused psychotherapy, a treatment studied for borderline personality disorder.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticKlein, Melanie (1882–1960)Developed a psychoanalytic play technique and proposed ideas including the depressive and paranoid-schizoid positions and projective identification.
- Integrative, common factors and outcome researchKlerman, Gerald L. (1928–1992)Co-developed interpersonal psychotherapy with Myrna Weissman and colleagues and studied psychotherapy and medication in depression.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticKohut, Heinz (1913–1981)Shifted psychoanalysis from drive-conflict interpretation to the developmental needs of the cohesive self, formulating mirroring, idealising, and twinship transferences and the curative process of empathic repair.
- Integrative, common factors and outcome researchLambert, Michael J. (born 1944)Helped develop the Outcome Questionnaire-45 and studied whether feedback about progress can support clinical decisions.
- Cognitive, behavioural and contextualLinehan, Marsha M. (born 1943)Formulated the biosocial theory of emotion dysregulation and built a comprehensive treatment system combining individual therapy, four skills modules, phone coaching, and therapist consultation teams.
- Humanistic, person-centred and existentialMay, Rollo Reese (1909–1994)Introduced European existential analysis to North America through the landmark volume Existence (1958), distinguished normal from neurotic anxiety, and explored intentionality, will, and the daimonic in clinical life.
- Systemic, couple and familyMcGoldrick, Monica (born 1943)Co-founder of the Multicultural Family Institute who transformed Bowenian family systems theory by embedding intergenerational triangles within cultural history, migration, gender, and social justice.
- Integrative, common factors and outcome researchMcLeod, John (born 1951)Situated counselling within its social and narrative context, co-created the pluralistic framework with Mick Cooper, and demonstrated how everyday 'cultural resources' serve as active vehicles of therapeutic change.
- Cognitive, behavioural and contextualMeichenbaum, Donald (born 1940)Translated Vygotsky and Luria's developmental internalisation of speech into Self-Instructional Training and created the three-phase Stress Inoculation Training protocol used across clinical, medical, and high-stress settings.
- Contextual, feminist and multiculturalMiller, Jean Baker (1927–2006)Author of Toward a New Psychology of Women (1976) and founding director of the Stone Center at Wellesley College, establishing Relational-Cultural Theory alongside Irene Stiver, Judith Jordan, and Janet Surrey.
- Integrative, common factors and outcome researchMiller, William R. (born 1947)Developed motivational interviewing and, with Stephen Rollnick, extended its use beyond the original work with problem drinkers.
- Systemic, couple and familyMinuchin, Salvador (1921–2017)Developed structural family therapy with colleagues at the Wiltwyck School and the Philadelphia Child Guidance Clinic.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticMitchell, Stephen A. (1946–2000)Replaced the classical drive-discharge model with the relational-conflict model, reconceptualising mind as intrinsically dyadic and analytic process as the negotiation of co-constructed enactments.
- Humanistic, person-centred and existentialMoreno, Jacob Levy (1889–1974)Developed psychodrama and sociometry, contributing action methods and group-based approaches to psychotherapy.
- Trauma, attachment and body-orientedOgden, Pat (born 1948)Developed a body-oriented psychotherapy that combines attention to movement and sensation with cognitive, emotional and relational work.
- Cognitive, behavioural and contextualPadesky, Christine A. (born 1953)Co-authored Mind Over Mood, wrote about guided discovery and co-developed a strengths-based CBT model.
- Systemic, couple and familyPerel, Esther (born 1958)Writes about desire and intimacy in long-term relationships and describes a clinical approach to infidelity.
- Humanistic, person-centred and existentialPerls, Friedrich Salomon (Fritz) (1893–1970)Co-founded Gestalt therapy with Laura Perls and Paul Goodman, formulated contact boundary disturbances and the 'topdog/underdog' split, and popularised empty-chair work and present-moment phenomenological awareness.
- Humanistic, person-centred and existentialPerls, Laura Posner (1905–1990)Co-founded the New York Institute for Gestalt Therapy and contributed to its development as a teacher and practitioner.
- Integrative, common factors and outcome researchProchaska, James O. (1942–2023)Synthesised competing schools of psychotherapy by distinguishing the 'what' (levels of change), the 'how' (ten experiential and behavioural processes), and the 'when' (Precontemplation through Maintenance).
- Humanistic, person-centred and existentialRank, Otto (1884–1939)Wrote about the trauma of birth, will and therapeutic relationships, and influenced later relationship-oriented approaches.
- Trauma, attachment and body-orientedReich, Wilhelm (1897–1957)Developed a clinical account of character resistance and later proposed the concept of muscular armouring.
- Humanistic, person-centred and existentialRogers, Carl Ransom (1902–1987)Pioneered non-directive and person-centred psychotherapy, formulated the necessary and sufficient conditions for therapeutic personality change, and introduced verbatim session recording to psychotherapy process research.
- Integrative, common factors and outcome researchRollnick, Stephen (born 1952)Articulated the four overlapping processes of MI (Engaging, Focusing, Evoking, Planning) and trained clinicians to restrain the 'righting reflex' in time-pressured consultations.
- Integrative, common factors and outcome researchRosenzweig, Saul (1907–2004)In a 1936 paper, Rosenzweig asked whether different psychotherapies might share unrecognised factors. The question remains a subject of research and debate.
- Integrative, common factors and outcome researchSafran, Jeremy D. (1952–2018)With J. Christopher Muran, studied strains in the therapeutic alliance and developed a relational framework for addressing them.
- Systemic, couple and familySatir, Virginia Marie (1916–1988)Helped establish family therapy training at the Mental Research Institute (MRI), wrote Conjoint Family Therapy (1964), and described communication stances and experiential work with families.
- Systemic, couple and familySelvini Palazzoli, Mara (1916–1999)Worked with families and co-authored clinical writings on systemic interviewing and team consultation.
- Trauma, attachment and body-orientedShapiro, Francine (1948–2019)Developed EMDR and described its procedures and theoretical framework in clinical and research publications.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticSpielrein, Sabina (1885–1942)Formulated the destructive drive as the cause of coming into being (acknowledged by Freud as a precursor to the death drive), pioneered child psychoanalysis and early language research in Geneva and Moscow, and analysed Jean Piaget.
- Integrative, common factors and outcome researchStrupp, Hans Hermann (1921–2006)Led the Vanderbilt psychotherapy research projects and co-developed time-limited dynamic psychotherapy with Jeffrey Binder.
- Contextual, feminist and multiculturalSue, Derald Wing (born 1942)Wrote about culturally responsive counselling, developed a framework of multicultural competencies with colleagues, and studied racial microaggressions.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticSullivan, Harry Stack (1892–1949)Founded interpersonal psychiatry, introduced the therapist as 'participant observer', formulated parataxic distortion and selective inattention, and created a pioneering therapeutic ward for young men with schizophrenia at Sheppard Pratt.
- Humanistic, person-centred and existentialTaft, Jessie (1882–1960)Developed relationship therapy alongside Philadelphia social workers and taught at the Pennsylvania School of Social Work.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticThompson, Clara Mabel (1893–1958)Synthesised Ferenczi's Budapest trauma-relational tradition with Sullivan's American interpersonal psychiatry, co-founded and led the William Alanson White Institute, and authored foundational cultural critiques of classical views on women.
- Trauma, attachment and body-orientedvan der Kolk, Bessel (born 1943)Studied traumatic stress and neuroimaging, proposed developmental trauma disorder and wrote about body-oriented approaches to trauma care.
- Integrative, common factors and outcome researchWampold, Bruce E. (born 1948)Compared medical and contextual accounts of psychotherapy and studied variation in outcomes across treatments and therapists.
- Systemic, couple and familyWatzlawick, Paul (1921–2007)Worked at the Mental Research Institute on communication theory and brief therapy, including the idea that attempted solutions may sometimes maintain a problem.
- Integrative, common factors and outcome researchWeissman, Myrna M. (born 1940)Partnered with Gerald Klerman to create and manualise Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT) around four interpersonal problem areas (grief, role disputes, role transitions, and interpersonal deficits) and led multi-generation depression studies.
- Systemic, couple and familyWhite, Michael Kingsley (1948–2008)Co-founded the Dulwich Centre in Adelaide and partnered with David Epston to develop Narrative Therapy, integrating Foucault's analysis of power/knowledge with collaborative story-making.
- Psychodynamic and psychoanalyticWinnicott, Donald Woods (1896–1971)Formulated the holding environment, the good-enough mother/caregiver, transitional objects and phenomena, true self vs false self, and therapeutic play including the squiggle game.
- Cognitive, behavioural and contextualWolpe, Joseph (1915–1997)Developed systematic desensitisation and, with Arnold Lazarus, described a subjective scale for reporting anxiety.
- Humanistic, person-centred and existentialYalom, Irvin David (born 1931)Described therapeutic factors in groups and wrote about four existential concerns: death, freedom, isolation and meaninglessness.
- Cognitive, behavioural and contextualYoung, Jeffrey E. (born 1950)Describes schemas, coping responses and modes as part of a model for understanding persistent patterns.
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Browse by era
Eras group people by the period of their main clinical activity, ordered by landmark year within each era.
1885–1918, Depth foundations and the talking cure
Transition from neurological hypnosis to free association, transference analysis, dissociation studies, analytical psychology, and individual psychology.
- Janet, Pierre1859–1947
- Freud, Sigmund1856–1939
- Abraham, Karl1877–1925
- Adler, Alfred1870–1937
- Jung, Carl Gustav1875–1961
- Spielrein, Sabina1885–1942
- Rank, Otto1884–1939
- Andreas-Salomé, Lou1861–1937
- Ferenczi, Sándor1873–1933
- Taft, Jessie1882–1960
1919–1945, Ego, object relations and interpersonal shifts
Expansion into child psychoanalysis, ego defence mechanisms, internal object relations, interpersonal psychiatry, psychodrama, and cultural critiques.
- Moreno, Jacob Levy1889–1974
- Klein, Melanie1882–1960
- Reich, Wilhelm1897–1957
- Freud, Anna1895–1982
- Rosenzweig, Saul1907–2004
- Horney, Karen1885–1952
- Fromm-Reichmann, Frieda1889–1957
- Hartmann, Heinz1894–1970
- Sullivan, Harry Stack1892–1949
- Thompson, Clara Mabel1893–1958
- Fromm, Erich1900–1980
- Deutsch, Helene1884–1982
- Fairbairn, W. R. D.1889–1964
- Winnicott, Donald Woods1896–1971
1946–1969, Humanistic, existential, behavioural and early family therapy
Emergence of person-centred, existential, Gestalt, and transactional therapies alongside first-wave behavioural desensitisation, attachment theory, and family systems.
- Frankl, Viktor Emil1905–1997
- Axline, Virginia Mae1911–1988
- Perls, Friedrich Salomon1893–1970
- Rogers, Carl Ransom1902–1987
- Perls, Laura Posner1905–1990
- Kelly, George Alexander1905–1967
- Ellis, Albert1913–2007
- Bateson, Gregory1904–1980
- May, Rollo Reese1909–1994
- Wolpe, Joseph1915–1997
- Frank, Jerome David1909–2005
- Berne, Eric Lennard1910–1970
- Bion, Wilfred Ruprecht1897–1979
- Gendlin, Eugene Tovio1926–2017
- Haley, Jay Douglas1923–2007
- Satir, Virginia Marie1916–1988
- Bowen, Murray1913–1990
- Ainsworth, Mary Dinsmore Salter1913–1999
- Minuchin, Salvador1921–2017
- Bowlby, Edward John Mostyn1907–1990
1970–1989, Cognitive therapy, systemic schools and outcome research
Manualised cognitive and interpersonal therapies, Milan and solution-focused systemic practices, narrative externalising, and empirical alliance research.
- Yalom, Irvin Davidborn 1931
- Kohut, Heinz1913–1981
- Watzlawick, Paul1921–2007
- Kaplan, Helen Singer1929–1995
- Kernberg, Otto F.born 1928
- Miller, Jean Baker1927–2006
- Meichenbaum, Donaldborn 1940
- Selvini Palazzoli, Mara1916–1999
- Bordin, Edward S.1913–1992
- Beck, Aaron Temkin1921–2021
- Strupp, Hans Hermann1921–2006
- Berg, Insoo Kim1934–2007
- McGoldrick, Monicaborn 1943
- Klerman, Gerald L.1928–1992
- Weissman, Myrna M.born 1940
- de Shazer, Steve1940–2005
- Foa, Edna B.1937–2026
- Greenberg, Leslie S.born 1945
- Epston, Davidborn 1944
- White, Michael Kingsley1948–2008
1990–2009, Contextual behavioural, attachment and trauma approaches
Development of DBT, ACT, EMDR, Schema Therapy, Emotionally Focused Couple Therapy, relational psychoanalysis, mentalisation, and rupture-repair models.
- Mitchell, Stephen A.1946–2000
- Benjamin, Jessicaborn 1946
- Young, Jeffrey E.born 1950
- Miller, William R.born 1947
- Rollnick, Stephenborn 1952
- Herman, Judith Lewisborn 1942
- Prochaska, James O.1942–2023
- Linehan, Marsha M.born 1943
- Shapiro, Francine1948–2019
- Padesky, Christine A.born 1953
- Beck, Judith S.born 1954
- Johnson, Sue1947–2024
- Hayes, Steven C.born 1948
- Hill, Clara E.born 1948
- Safran, Jeremy D.1952–2018
- Fonagy, Peterborn 1952
2010–present, Pluralistic, somatic and multicultural practice
Integration of compassion-focused and sensorimotor trauma work, routine outcome feedback, pluralistic shared decision-making, and multicultural humility.
- Sue, Derald Wingborn 1942
- Lambert, Michael J.born 1944
- Helms, Janet E.born 1948
- Ogden, Patborn 1948
- Gilbert, Paulborn 1951
- Perel, Estherborn 1958
- McLeod, Johnborn 1951
- Cooper, Mickborn 1967
- van der Kolk, Besselborn 1943
- Wampold, Bruce E.born 1948
To browse by lineage and role, open Lineages and roles.
About this collection
Dates show reported birth and death years alongside a landmark publication or institutional year. Where a profile’s sources are catalogued from publisher or library records without full-text re-inspection, the page says so. See About for scope and limits and Sources for every citation.
Educational draft · Subject review pending